Preparation of cellulose-based flexible SERS and its application for rapid and ultra-sensitive detection of thiram on fruits and vegetables.

In response to the prevalent issue of thiram as a common pesticide residue on the surface of fruits and vegetables, our research team employed an acidic hydrated metal salt low co-fusion solvent to dissolve cellulose lysis slurry. Subsequently, a regenerated cellulose membrane (RCM) was successfully prepared via sol-gel method. Uniformly sized Ag nanoparticles (NPs) were deposited on RCM utilizing the continuous ion layer adsorption and reaction (SILAR) technique. The resulting Ag NPs/RCM flexible surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) substrates exhibited a minimum detection limit of 5 × 10-9 M for Rhodamine 6G (R6G), demonstrating good uniformity (RSD = 4.86 %) and reproducibility (RSD = 3.07 %). Moreover, the substrate displayed a remarkable sensitivity of 10-10 M toward thiram standard solution. Given its inherent flexibility, the substrate proves advantageous for the detection of three-dimensional environments such as fruit and vegetable surfaces, and its practicality has been confirmed in the detection of thiram residue on apples, tomatoes, pears, and other fruits and vegetables.

Side chain of confined xylan affects cellulose integrity leading to bending stem with reduced mechanical strength in ornamental plants.

The stem support for fresh-cut flowers exerts a profound influence on the display of their blossoms. During vase insertion, bending stems significantly affect the ornamental value, but much remains unclear about the underlying reasons. In this study, six pairs of ornamental plants were screened for the contrast of bending and straight stems. The bending stems have weakened mechanical force and biomass recalcitrance compared with the straight ones. Meanwhile, cells in the bending stems became more loosely packed, along with a decrease in cell wall thickness and cellulose levels. Furthermore, wall properties characterizations show bending stems have decreased lignocellulosic CrI and cellulose DP, and enhanced the branching ratio of hemicellulose which is trapped in the cellulose. Given the distinct cell wall factors in different species, all data are grouped in standardized to eliminate the variations among plant species. The principal composition analysis and correlation analysis of the processed dataset strongly suggest that cellulose association factors determine the stem mechanical force and recalcitrance. Based on our results, we propose a model for how branches of confined hemicellulose interacted with cellulose to modulate stem strength support for the straight or bending phenotype in cut flowers.

Exploring the potential of bacterial cellulose paste as a fat replacer for low-fat plant-based hamburger patties.

Plant-based hamburger patties (PHPs) with reduced fat content made using fat replacers will meet the consumption goals of individuals who consume meat alternative products for health. In this study, we developed a dual-alternative food model by analysing the applicability of bacterial cellulose paste (BCP) as a fat replacer and supplementing it in PHPs. BCPs were prepared with solid contents of (w/w; 1.0%, 1.5%, 2.0%, 2.5%, and 3.0%) and compared and analyzed with three types of conventional vegetable [coconut oil, margarine, and shortening (SH)] and animal fats (beef tallow, butter, and lard) for various characteristics (appearance, dimensional stability, hardness level, and rheological properties). According to the results, BCP with a solid content of 3.0% (w/w) had the most similar characteristics to SH. Therefore, using SH as a control fat, PHPs in which 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% (w/w) SH were replaced by 3.0% (w/w) BCP were prepared. Analysis of the appearance, instrumental color, diameter reduction, thickness, cooking loss, and texture profile of the PHPs, confirmed that replacement of 25%-50% (w/w) SH with 3.0% (w/w) BCP in the preparation of PHP resulted in i) redder color, ii) better dimensional stability, iii) lower cooking loss, and iv) higher chewiness of the final products. The results of the sensory evaluation showed that the PHPs, with 25%-50% (w/w) SH replaced with 3.0% (w/w) BCP, exhibited no significant differences (p < 0.05) in overall preference scores compared to the full-SH sample. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the potential of BCP as a fat substitute for the production of PHPs.

Determination of thiram in fruit juices using a bacterial cellulose nanocrystal-based SERS substrate.

Pesticide residues in agri-foods have risk to human health and one solution is to develop simple and accurate methods for rapid detection. We developed a SERS sensor composed of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and bacterial cellulose nanocrystal (BCNC) to detect thiram in fruit juice. BCNC-SO3H was used as a stabilizer to support AuNPs via electrostatic repulsion, fabricating a BCNC-AuNPs SERS substrate with uniformly distributed AuNPs. This BCNC-AuNPs SERS substrate was applied to determine thiram residues in peach juice, apple juice, and grape juice with the limits of detection of 0.036 ppm, 0.044 ppm, and 0.044 ppm, respectively. The whole test took 12 min including sample preparation and analysis. The detection limits meet the maximum residue levels of thiram in fruit juices required by China, Europe and North America, indicating that this BCNC-based substrate could serve as a satisfactory SERS sensor for pesticide residue monitoring in the food supply chain.

Exploring the mechanism of Lycium barbarum fruit cell wall polysaccharide remodeling reveals potential pectin accumulation contributors.

The level of polysaccharides in the mature Lycium barbarum fruit (LBF) cell wall depends on their metabolism, trafficking, and reassembly within the cell. In this study, we examined the composition, content, and ultrastructure of the cell wall polysaccharides of LBF during maturation, and further analyzed cell wall polysaccharide remodeling using isotope tagging with relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ)-based proteomics. The results showed that the contents of cellulose and hemicellulose tended to increase in the pre-maturation stage and decrease in the later stage, while pectin level increased before fruit maturing. The differential expression of the 54 proteins involved in the metabolic pathways for glucose, fructose, galactose, galacturonic acid and arabinose was found to be responsible for these alterations. The work provides a biological framework for the reorganization of polysaccharides in the LBF cell wall, and supports the hypothesis that pectic polysaccharide glycosyl donors come from starch, cellulose, hemicellulose and isomorphic pectin.

Cellulose fibers and ellagitannin-rich extractives from rambutan (Nephelium Lappaceum L.) peel by an eco-friendly approach.

This study assesses the viability of an accelerated solvent extraction technique employing environmentally friendly solvents to extract ellagitannins while producing cellulose-rich fibers from rambutan peel. Two sequential extraction protocols were investigated: 1) water followed by acetone/water (4:1, v:v), and 2) acetone followed by acetone/water (4:1, v:v), both performed at 50 °C. The first protocol had a higher extraction yield of 51 %, and the obtained extractives featured a higher total phenolic (531.4 ± 22.0 mg-GAE/g) and flavonoid (487.3 ± 16.9 mg-QE/g) than the second protocol (495.4 ± 32.8 mg-GAE/g and 310.6 ± 31.4 mg-QE/g, respectively). The remaining extractive-free fibers were processed by bleaching using either 2 wt% sodium hydroxide with 3 wt% hydrogen peroxide or 4-5 wt% peracetic acid. Considering bleaching efficiency, yield, and process sustainability, the single bleaching treatment with 5 wt% of peracetic acid was selected as the most promising approach to yield cellulose-rich fibers. The samples were analyzed by methanolysis to determine the amount and type of poly- and oligosaccharides and studied by 13C solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and thermal gravimetric analysis. The products obtained from the peels demonstrate significant potential for use in various sectors, including food, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and paper production.

Melatonin treatment delays the softening of blueberry fruit by modulating cuticular wax metabolism and reducing cell wall degradation.

The effects of postharvest melatonin (MT) treatment on cuticular wax and cell wall metabolism in blueberry fruit (Vaccinium spp.) were evaluated. The results revealed that MT treatment maintained the cuticular wax rod-like structure and delayed wax degradation. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis results revealed that MT application changed the cuticular wax composition in blueberries, and 25 metabolic components were screened. The metabolic regulation of wax quality in blueberry fruit may therefore be influenced by MT. Additionally, MT slowed down pectin and cellulose degradation by reducing the activities of cell wall degrading enzymes like pectin methyl esterase polygalacturonase, ß-galactosidase, and cellulose in the later stages of storage. It also downregulated the transcriptional expression of related genes like VcPE, VcPG, VcBG6, and VcGAL1. Thus, MT prevented softening and senescence by postponing the degradation of the cell wall in postharvest blueberry fruit.

Bioconversion of underutilized brewing by-products into bacterial cellulose by a newly isolated Komagataeibacter rhaeticus strain: A preliminary evaluation of the bioprocess environmental impact.

A novel Komagataeibacter rhaeticus UNIWA AAK2 strain was used to produce bacterial cellulose (BC), valorizing brewers' spent grain (BSG) and brewer's spent yeast (BSY). Under optimal conditions (controlled pH = 6 and 30 g/L sugars), a maximum BC of 4.0 g/L was achieved when BSG aqueous extract (BSGE) was used. The substitution of yeast extract and peptone with BSY autolyzates did not show significant differences on BC concentration and productivity. The FTIR, SEM, and TGA analyses showed that the use of brewing by-products had no effect on the structure and thermal stability of the produced BC, compared to highly-pure and commercial substrates. The LCA of the developed bioprocess revealed that BSGE- and BSY-based media can reduce the carbon footprint of 1 kg dry BC by 76% compared to commercial-based-media. Beer by-products could serve as cost-effective resources to produce value-added and sustainable biopolymers such as BC, while minimizing waste and restructuring the brewing-industry.

Chemical differences in cover crop residue quality are maintained through litter decay.

As plant litter decomposes, its mass exponentially decreases until it reaches a non-zero asymptote. However, decomposition rates vary considerably among litter types as a function of their overall quality (i.e., carbon:nitrogen (C:N) ratio and litter chemistry). We investigated the effects of hairy vetch (HV: Vicia villosa Roth):cereal rye (RYE: Secale cereale L.) biomass proportions with or without broadcasted poultry manure on overall litter quality before and during decomposition. As HV biomass proportions increased from 0 to 100%, the relative susceptibility of HV:RYE mixtures to microbial decomposition increased due to: (i) decrease in the initial C:N ratio (87:1 to 10:1 in 2012 and 67:1 to 9:1 in 2013), (ii) increase in the non-structural labile carbohydrates (33 to 61% across years), and (iii) decrease in the structural holo-cellulose (59 to 33% across years) and lignin (8 to 6% across years) fractions. Broadcasted poultry manure decreased the overall initial quality of HV-dominated litters and increased the overall initial quality of RYE-dominated litters. Across all HV:RYE biomass proportions with or without poultry manure, chemical changes during litter decay were related to proportional mass loss. Therefore, the relative decrease in carbohydrates and the concomitant increase in holo-cellulose and lignin fractions were more pronounced for fast decomposing litter types, i.e., litters dominated by HV rather than RYE. While our results suggest possible convergence of litter C:N ratios, initial differences in litter chemistry neither converged nor diverged. Therefore, we conclude that the initial chemistry of litter before decomposition exerts a strong control on its chemical composition throughout the decay continuum.

Exploitation of Sugarcane Bagasse and Environmentally Sustainable Production, Purification, Characterization, and Application of Lovastatin by Aspergillus terreus AUMC 15760 under Solid-State Conditions.

Using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region for identification, three strains of Aspergillus terreus were identified and designated AUMC 15760, AUMC 15762, and AUMC 15763 for the Assiut University Mycological Centre culture collection. The ability of the three strains to manufacture lovastatin in solid-state fermentation (SSF) using wheat bran was assessed using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). The most potent strain was strain AUMC 15760, which was chosen to ferment nine types of lignocellulosic waste (barley bran, bean hay, date palm leaves, flax seeds, orange peels, rice straw, soy bean, sugarcane bagasse, and wheat bran), with sugarcane bagasse turning out to be the best substrate. After 10 days at pH 6.0 at 25 °C using sodium nitrate as the nitrogen source and a moisture content of 70%, the lovastatin output reached its maximum quantity (18.2 mg/g substrate). The medication was produced in lactone form as a white powder in its purest form using column chromatography. In-depth spectroscopy examination, including 1H, 13C-NMR, HR-ESI-MS, optical density, and LC-MS/MS analysis, as well as a comparison of the physical and spectroscopic data with published data, were used to identify the medication. At an IC50 of 69.536 ± 5.73 µM, the purified lovastatin displayed DPPH activity. Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis had MICs of 1.25 mg/mL, whereas Candida albicans and Candida glabrata had MICs of 2.5 mg/mL and 5.0 mg/mL, respectively, against pure lovastatin. As a component of sustainable development, this study offers a green (environmentally friendly) method for using sugarcane bagasse waste to produce valuable chemicals and value-added commodities.

Classification of Amazonian fast-growing tree species and wood chemical determination by FTIR and multivariate analysis (PLS-DA, PLS).

Fast-growing trees like Capirona, Bolaina, and Pashaco have the potential to reduce forest degradation because of their ecological features, the economic importance in the Amazon Forest, and an industry based on wood-polymer composites. Therefore, a practical method to discriminate specie (to avoid illegal logging) and determine chemical composition (tree breeding programs) is needed. This study aimed to validate a model for the classification of wood species and a universal model for the rapid determination of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin using FTIR spectroscopy coupled with chemometrics. Our results showed that PLS-DA models for the classification of wood species (0.84 ≤ R2 ≤ 0.91, 0.12 ≤ RMSEP ≤ 0.20, accuracy, specificity, and sensibility between 95.2 and 100%) were satisfied with the full spectra and the differentiation among these species based on IR peaks related to cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose. Besides, the full spectra helped build a three-species universal PLS model to quantify the principal wood chemical components. Lignin (RPD = 2.27, [Formula: see text] = 0.84) and hemicellulose (RPD = 2.46, [Formula: see text] = 0.83) models showed a good prediction, while cellulose model (RPD = 3.43, [Formula: see text] = 0.91) classified as efficient. This study showed that FTIR-ATR, together with chemometrics, is a reliable method to discriminate wood species and to determine the wood chemical composition in juvenile trees of Pashaco, Capirona, and Bolaina.

A multimodal and multiscale investigation of factors affecting the juice yield of cider apples.

Apple cider juice yield at harvest and after 15 and 30 days of storage durations was studied by analyzing the mechanical properties of fresh and plasmolyzed flesh, water distribution, cell wall polysaccharide composition and organization of the apples; in this study, the apple varieties used were Avrolles, Douce coetligne, Douce moen, Judor, Petit jaune. Juice yield mainly depended on the apple variety and the storage duration. Cellulose organization and cell wall pectin hydration were affected by ripening and are related to fruit firmness. Flesh viscoelastic mechanical properties were not general indications of juice yields. However, these properties helped distinguish the varieties according to flesh damage caused by ice crystals upon freezing. Cell encapsulation of the juice in the flesh contributed to lower yields. The apple variety and harvesting mode are recommended as a means to better control juice yield variations.

Comparative Analysis of G-Layers in Bast Fiber and Xylem Cell Walls in Flax Using Raman Spectroscopy.

In a response to gravitropic stress, G-layers (gelatinous layers) were deposited in xylem cell walls of tilted flax plants. G-layers were produced in both tension wood (upper side) as expected but were also observed in opposite wood (lower side). Raman spectral profiles were acquired for xylem G-layers from the tension and opposite side as well as from the G-layer of bast fibers grown under non-tilted conditions. Statistical analysis by principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least square-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) clearly distinguished bast fiber G-layers from xylem G-layers. Discriminating bands were observed for cellulose (380-1150-1376 cm-1), hemicelluloses (517-1094-1126-1452 cm-1) and aromatics (1270-1599-1658 cm-1). PCA did not allow separation of G-layers from tension/opposite-wood sides. In contrast, the two types of xylem G-layers could be incompletely discriminated through PLS-DA. Overall, the results suggested that while the architecture (polymer spatial distribution) of bast fibers G-layers and xylem G-layers are similar, they should be considered as belonging to a different cell wall layer category based upon ontogenetical and chemical composition parameters.

Effects of cellulose nanofibrils treatment on antioxidant properties and aroma of fresh-cut apples.

Horticultural products tend to deteriorate during postharvest storage and processing. In this study, cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were prepared from wood to investigate the effects of CNF treatment on the storage quality, aroma composition, and antioxidant system of fresh-cut apple (Malus domestica) wedges. Compared with control treatment, CNF coating treatment significantly improved the appearance of apple wedges; reduced the decay rate of apple wedges; and delayed the decline in weight loss, firmness, and titratable acid during storage. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry showed that CNF treatment could maintain the aroma components of apple wedges (stored for 4 days). Further investigations showed that CNF treatment increased the antioxidant system level and decreased reactive oxygen species content and membrane lipid peroxidation level of apple wedges. Overall, this study showed that CNF coating could effectively maintain the quality of fresh-cut apples during cold storage.

Valorisation of fruit peel bioactive into green synthesized silver nanoparticles to modify cellulose wrapper for shelf-life extension of packaged bread.

Fruit peels are rich source of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, flavonoids, and antioxidants but are often discarded as waste due to limited pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications. This study aimed to valorise pomegranate and citrus fruit peel into green synthesised silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) in order to modify cellulose-based wrapping material for prospective food packaging applications and propose an alternate and sustainable approach to replace polyethene based food packaging material. Four different concentrations of AgNO3 (0.5 mM, 1 mM, 2 mM, and 3 mM) were used for green synthesis of AgNPs from fruit peel bioactive, which were characterised followed by phytochemical analysis. Ultraviolet-Visible spectroscopy showed surface plasmon resonance at 420 nm, XRD analysis showed 2θ peak at 27.8°, 32.16°, 38.5°, 44.31°, 46.09°, 54.76°, 57.47°, 64.61° and 77.50° corresponding to (210), (122), (111), (200), (231), (142), (241), (220) and (311) plane of face centred cubic crystal structure of AgNPs. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis of AgNPs green synthesised from pomegranate and kinnow peel extract showed a major peak at 3277, 1640 and 1250-1020 1/cm while a small peak at 2786 1/cm was observed in case of pomegranate peel extract which was negligible in AgNPs synthesized from kinnow peel extract. Particle sizes of AgNPs showed no statistically significant variance with p > 0.10 and thus, 2 mM was chosen for further experimentation and modification of cellulose based packaging material as it showed smallest average particle size. Zeta potential was observed to be nearly neutral with a partial negative strength due to presence of various phenolic compounds such as presence of gallic acid which was confirmed by ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array(UHPLC-PDA) detector. Thermal stability analysis of green synthesised AgNPs qualified the sterilisation conditions up to 100 °C. AgNPs green synthesized from both the peel extracts had higher polyphenolic content, antioxidant and radical scavenging activity as compared to peel extracts without treatment (p < 0.05). The cellulose based food grade packaging material was enrobed by green synthesised AgNPs. The characterisation of modified cellulose wrappers showed no significant difference in thickness of modified cellulose wrappers as compared with untreated cellulose wrapper (p > 0.42) while weight and grammage increased significantly in modified cellulose wrapper (p < 0.05). The colour values on CIE scale (L*, a* and b*) showed statistically significant increase in yellow and green colour (p < 0.05) for modified cellulose wrappers as compared to control wrapper. The oxygen permeability coefficient, water vapour permeability coefficient, water absorption capacity and water behaviour characteristics (water content, swelling degree and solubility) showed significant decrease (p < 0.05) for modified cellulose wrapper as compared to control wrapper. A uniform distribution and density of green synthesised AgNPs across cellulose wrapper matrix was observed through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images with no significant aggregation, confirming successful enrobing and stable immobilisation of nanoparticles from cellulose matrix. A seven-day storage study of bread wrapped in modified and control cellulose wrappers showed delayed occurrence of microbial, yeast and mould count in bread packaged in modified cellulose wrappers and thus, resulting in shelf life extension of bread. The results are encouraging for the potential applications of modified cellulose wrappers to replace polyethene based food packaging.

Exploring Supramolecular Interactions between the Extracellular-Matrix-Derived Minimalist Bioactive Peptide and Nanofibrillar Cellulose for the Development of an Advanced Biomolecular Scaffold.

It has been increasingly evident over the last few years that bioactive peptide hydrogels in conjugation with polymer hydrogels are emerging as a new class of supramolecular materials suitable for various biomedical applications owing to their specificity, tunability, and nontoxicity toward the biological system. Despite their unique biocompatible features, both polymer- and peptide-based scaffolds suffer from certain limitations, which restrict their use toward developing efficient matrices for controlling cellular behavior. The peptide hydrogels usually form soft matrices with low mechanical strength, whereas most of the polymer hydrogels lack biofunctionality. In this direction, combining polymers with peptides to develop a conjugate hydrogel can be explored as an emergent approach to overcome the limitations of the individual components. The polymer will provide high mechanical strength, whereas the biofunctionality of the material can be induced by the bioactive peptide sequence. In this study, we utilized TEMPO-oxidized nanofibrillar cellulose as the polymer counterpart, which was co-assembled with a short N-cadherin mimetic bioactive peptide sequence, Nap-HAVDI, to fabricate an NFC-peptide conjugate hydrogel. Interestingly, the mechanical strength of the peptide hydrogel was found to be significantly improved by combining the peptide with the NFC in the conjugate hydrogel. The addition of the peptide into the NFC also reduced the pore size within NFC matrices, which further helped in improving cellular adhesion, survival, and proliferation. Furthermore, the cells grown on the NFC and NFC-peptide hybrid hydrogel demonstrated normal expression of cytoskeleton proteins, i.e., ß-tubulin in C6 cells and actin in L929 cells, respectively. The selective response of neuronal cells toward the specific bioactive peptide was further observed through a protein expression study. Thus, our study demonstrated the collective role of the cellulose-peptide composite material that revealed superior physical properties and biological response of this composite scaffold, which may open up a new platform for biomedical applications.

A dive into the cell wall with Arabidopsis.

One of the many legacies of the work of Michel Caboche is our understanding of plant cell wall synthesis and metabolism thanks to the use of Arabidopsis mutants. Here I describe how he was instrumental in initiating the genetic study of plant cell walls. I also show, with a few examples for cellulose and pectins, how this approach has led to important new insights in cell wall synthesis and how the metabolism of pectins contributes to plant growth and morphogenesis. I also illustrate the limitations of the use of mutants to explain processes at the scale of cells, organs or whole plants in terms of the physico-chemical properties of cell wall polymers. Finally, I sketch how new approaches can cope with these limitations.

L'un des nombreux héritages des travaux de Michel Caboche est notre compréhension de la synthèse et du métabolisme des parois cellulaires végétales grâce à l'utilisation de mutants d'Arabidopsis. Je décris ici comment il a joué un rôle déterminant dans le lancement de l'étude génétique des parois cellulaires végétales. Je montre également, avec quelques exemples pour la cellulose et les pectines, comment cette approche a conduit à de nouvelles connaissances importantes sur la synthèse de la paroi cellulaire et comment le métabolisme des pectines contribue à la croissance et à la morphogenèse des plantes. J'illustre également les limites de l'utilisation de mutants pour expliquer des processus à l'échelle de cellules, d'organes ou de plantes entières en termes de propriétés physico-chimiques de polymères de parois cellulaires. Enfin, j'esquisse comment de nouvelles approches peuvent faire face à ces limitations.

Pulvinar slits: Cellulose-deficient and de-methyl-esterified pectin-rich structures in a legume motor cell.

The cortical motor cells (CMCs) in a legume pulvinus execute the reversible deformation in leaf movement that is driven by changes in turgor pressure. In contrast to the underlying osmotic regulation property, the cell wall structure of CMCs that contributes to the movement has yet to be characterized in detail. Here, we report that the cell wall of CMCs has circumferential slits with low levels of cellulose deposition, which are widely conserved among legume species. This structure is unique and distinct from that of any other primary cell walls reported so far; thus, we named them "pulvinar slits." Notably, we predominantly detected de-methyl-esterified homogalacturonan inside pulvinar slits, with a low deposition of highly methyl-esterified homogalacturonan, as with cellulose. In addition, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis indicated that the cell wall composition of pulvini is different from that of other axial organs, such as petioles or stems. Moreover, monosaccharide analysis showed that pulvini are pectin-rich organs like developing stems and that the amount of galacturonic acid in pulvini is greater than in developing stems. Computer modeling suggested that pulvinar slits facilitate anisotropic extension in the direction perpendicular to the slits in the presence of turgor pressure. When tissue slices of CMCs were transferred to different extracellular osmotic conditions, pulvinar slits altered their opening width, indicating their deformability. In this study, we thus characterized a distinctive cell wall structure of CMCs, adding to our knowledge of repetitive and reversible organ deformation as well as the structural diversity and function of the plant cell wall.

In silico studies of plant primary cell walls - structure and mechanics.

Primary plant cell wall (PCW) is a highly organized network, its performance is dependent on cellulose, hemicellulose and pectic polysaccharides, their properties, interactions and assemblies. Their mutual relationships and functions in the cell wall can be better understood by means of conceptual models of their higher-order structures. Knowledge unified in the form of a conceptual model allows predictions to be made about the properties and behaviour of the system under study. Ongoing research in this field has resulted in a number of conceptual models of the cell wall. However, due to the currently limited research methods, the community of cell wall researchers have not reached a consensus favouring one model over another. Herein we present yet another research technique - numerical modelling - which is capable of resolving this issue. Even at the current stage of development of numerical techniques, due to their complexity, the in silico reconstruction of PCW remains a challenge for computational simulations. However, some difficulties have been overcome, thereby making it possible to produce advanced approximations of PCW structure and mechanics. This review summarizes the results concerning the simulation of polysaccharide interactions in PCW with regard to network fine structure, supramolecular properties and polysaccharide binding affinity. The in silico mechanical models presented herein incorporate certain physical and biomechanical aspects of cell wall architecture for the purposes of undertaking critical testing to bring about advances in our understanding of the mechanisms controlling cells and limiting cell wall expansion.

Non-destructive preservation state estimation of waterlogged archaeological wooden artifacts.

Non-destructive preservation state estimation is an essential prerequisite for the preservation and conservation of waterlogged archaeological wooden artifacts. Herein, Near Infrared (NIR) spectroscopy coupled with orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) were applied to assess sixty-four waterlogged archaeological woods collected from seven excavation sites in the period range of 2900 BCE-1912 CE, aiming at developing a non-destructive, accurate and rapid preservation state estimation methodology. The role of non-decayed recent wood of relevant species on preservation state estimation was studied in prior, showing the use of non-decayed recent wood could not improve the predictive ability. Besides, the high variability in terms of chemical structure between archaeological softwoods and archaeological hardwoods did affect the preservation state estimation. Thus, a simple OPLS-DA model of non-destructively distinguishing archaeological hardwoods from softwoods, R2Xcum of 0.659, R2Ycum of 0.836 and Q2cum of 0.763, was established to avoid and overcome destructive approach for wood identification. Then, the well-defined three grouped separations of slightly-decayed, moderately-decayed and severely-decayed waterlogged archaeological woods were revealed in OPLS-DA models, providing R2Xcum of 0.793, R2Ycum of 0.738, Q2cum of 0.680, and R2Xcum of 0.780, R2Ycum of 0.901, Q2cum of 0.870, for waterlogged archaeological hardwoods and waterlogged archaeological softwoods respectively. Potential predictive wood spectral bands were screened and tentatively identified as hydroxyls of crystalline cellulose, acetyl groups of hemicelluloses, C-H bands of lignin, which guaranteed the elimination of non-structural compounds, such as water and inorganic components interference. Furthermore, the developed NIR methodology was validated by an extensively used destructive method consisting of anatomical characteristics, maximum water content and basic density analyses. The results indicated that NIR coupled to chemometrics could non-destructively and accurately predict the preservation states of waterlogged archaeological wooden artifacts and avoid the interference of water and inorganic deposits.